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Writing
an Argument
(Fowler,
H.R., Aaron, J.E., & Okoominan, J. The
Little, Brown Handbook. Longman,
2001.)
Tests for an
Argument Topic
-
thesis
must be an arguable claim
-
concerns
a conclusion drawn from evidence (not an indisputable fact)
-
can
be disputed: others might take a different position (I.E., THE CLAIM
is not just personal taste)
-
will
be disputed: it is controversial (I.E., MORE THAN A few
people disagree)
-
is
something you care about
-
is
narrow enough to argue in the space and time available
Six Types of
Arguments
-
Introduction: Provides
some context: a question, quotation, an anecdote, some historical
background, some factual information, or a narration of events. POSES A PROBLEM. It also includes a thesis statement: a
statement of claim, and major reasons.
Body: two sections,
one answering possible objections to the claim (may be called inoculating
your claim from other objections) and one supporting the claim.
Conclusion:
summarizes the main points of the argument or calls for some sort of action;
it may include an emotional appeal to give the argument PRESENCE.
- Delayed
Thesis Argument (when audience strongly opposes your claim)
May first discuss assumptions,
values, or definitions the audience holds in common with the writer of
the argument. The writer shows how these common assumptions
provide support for a set of beliefs that will become the chain of reasons
to support the claim. The chain of reasoning leads the
claim or thesis at the end. May
also begin with objections to the claim. Then
the writer answers these objections and leads the audience through the
chain of reasons that support the claim.
Challenges
for the writer: does not follow a set form or pattern, and writer
must maintain audience interest and assent throughout without giving
a sense that the audience is being manipulated or "trapped."
- Conciliatory
Argument (when the audience totally opposes your claim)
Similar
to the delayed thesis argument but does not move on to any statement of
author's claim. The goal is to move the audience from a position
of unconditional opposition to a more moderate position, even one of conditional
support. The writer tries to build a basis for further conversation,
establishing some common ground with the audience in order to win a degree
of consent. The writer tries to move the audience toward
a more moderate position in relation to the writer's position.
- Motivational
Argument (when the audience already agrees with the writer's position
but may not be motivated to act or respond)
Motivational appeals
generally involve an appeal to a common vision or common set of values. (Most
ads are motivational arguments, trying to move us to acquire things we
already want or value. Preaching is also motivational in
that a preacher describes a religious or moral vision and encourages
those who accept this vision to change their behavior. Business
consultants have made millions using this kind of argument.)
1. A
description of a need or problem
2. A
description of the negative effects or consequences of that need, or
the problem for the audience if the audience does not do some action
or make some response
3. A
way to fill the need or solve the problem
4. A
description of a "vision" of this solution, how things would be better
if the solution were put into place
5. Ends
with a specific action that readers can take to contribute to the solution
(make a phone call, write a letter, contribute money, make an immediate
change in behavior, make a commitment, sign a contract, etc. The
motivational argument usually includes the means to take the action (phone
number and what you should say, addressed envelope, etc.)
5. Rogerian Argument (Carl Rogers, psychologist): nonconfrontational, nonjudgemental,
and cooperative argument-when you want to establish common ground and mediate
between two opposing groups-to begin dialogue among parties that might
not get together otherwise [e.g., a labor dispute or a diplomatic summit]
Section
1. Context for the argument
described and a brief statement summarizing the various positions. All
parties should agree that the mediator has stated their position accurately.
Section
2. The mediator tries to outline each position
as clearly as possible without passing judgment on any position or
seeking to favor one side over the other. All parties
should accept these as accurate.
Section
3. Mediator attempts to describe assumptions,
values, & definitions that the different parties share.
Section
4. Concludes with a presentation of claims that
all the parties can accept based on what they share.
A Rogerian argument
may result in an agreement to disagree, but at least it will be
an informed disagreement. It will show precisely where
the parties disagree and what they have in common; and it may move both
parties to a new position.
6. Option
Three Argument (developed by William Safire, political columnist
and language expert for the New York Times) Is similar to
Rogerian argument but in Section 3 (see above), the writer presents a
third option that lies between the two extremes, a position that
builds on what he or she and the audience share. (Often
used in political campaigns when candidates try to identify with the
political center, hoping to win votes from both parties and in the corporate
world when, for example, a company wants to show stockholders it is steering
a middle course between two extremes.)
Using
Reason
Your thesis or claim is
a conclusion you reach by reasoning about evidence. Two methods
of reasoning are induction (you observe your evidence or infer a
generalization from that; you predict something about the unknown based
on what you know; you create new knowledge our of old) and deduction (you
proceed form a generalization to your own specific circumstance; you apply
old information to new information). Both induction and deduction
use the elements of argument: claims, evidence, assumptions, and qualifiers.
1. claims-
positive statements that need support
2. evidence (also sometimes called data or grounds)-
the facts, examples, expert opinions, and other information that support
the claim. Ask of evidence: Is it accurate? Adequate? Relevant?
Representative?
3. assumptions-
these are the writer's underlying-often unstated-beliefs, opinions, principles,
or inferences that link the evidence to the
claims. The writer's assumptions justify or warrant
making the claims on the basis of the evidence provided. For
example: Claim= Chemistry faculty should evaluate the lab's quality. Assumption=
Chemistry professors are the most capable of evaluating the lab's quality.
4. qualifiers or hedges- these words and
phrases, such as may, might, perhaps, in the following circumstances,
make the writer appear cautious and thoughtful, and allow for exceptions
to the rule.
Distinguishing
Facts, Opinions, Beliefs, and Prejudices in an Argument: the acceptability
of a claim depends partly on which of these categories it falls into.
Caution: Claims
of belief or prejudice that pose as considered opinions often appear online. Anyone
can post anything on the Internet without passing it through an editorial
screening like that undergone by books and articles in journals. The
filtering of such Internet materials is entirely up to you as the reader.
A fact is
verifiable--one can determine that it is true. It can be misinterpreted
or distorted but it is ultimately verifiable, so it does not lmake a worthwhile
argument by itself. (Ex. The cost of medical care is rising).
An opinion is
a judgment based on evidence, an honest attempt to draw a reasonable conclusion
from evidence. Expert opinions are the judgements formed by authorities
on the basis of their own examination of evidence. (Ex1. Mandatory drug
testing in the workplace violates constitutional freedom. Ex2. Mandatory
drug testing in the workplace is essential to increase employee productivity).
A prejudice is
an opinion based on insufficient or unexamined evidence. It
is an inaccurate generalization about a group of people, things, etc. This
kind of assertion has no place in an argument. (Ex. Teenagers
are irresponsible.) (Ex. Trailer
homes are disgusting.)
A belief is
a conviction based on cultural or personal faith, morality, or values. It
expresses a viewpoint (like an opinion), but is not based on facts and
other evidence. Beliefs cannot serve as the central claim
of an argument since they cannot be disproved by facts or even contested
on the basis of facts. However, statements of belief can
serve as a kind of evidence in an argument, and they often form the assumptions
linking claims and evidence. (Ex. Capital
punishment is legalized murder. [The writer would need to
provide evidence to support this belief, would need to show how capital
punishment relates to murder.])
Readers must
be appealed to through a combination of three modes of persuasion:
Logos: appeals
to the reader's mind and capacity to reason logically between evidence
and claims
Pathos: appeals
to the reader's imagination and beliefs and feelings
Ethos: ethical
appeal-the sense the writer gives of being a competent, fair, trustworthy
person
Deciding what
kind of questions is at issue
Some
experts consider these 6 categories to be progressively inclusive because
claims in one category typically depend upon claims in the category preceding
it.
-
Fact: Does
X exist? Did X occur?
-
Definition: What
kind of thing is this? What category of things does it
fit? What does the category label mean? (Clear
and defined terms are essential, especially highly abstract words
such as justice, equality, quality, and maturity. Definitions
may take an entire paragraph or more.)
-
Cause
or Consequence: What caused this thing? What
will happen because of it?
-
Interpretation: What
does this mean? What is it like that we already understand?
-
Value: Is
this thing good or bad?
-
Policy
and Procedures: What should be done? How
should it be done? Who has the authority to do it?
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